Course Content
chapter1: The Variety of Living Organisms
1.1 Introduction to Biology
The study of living organisms and their interactions with the environment.
Importance of understanding biological principles for health, conservation, and technology.
1.2 Characteristics of Living Organisms
MRS GREN:
Movement: Changes in position or movement of substances.
Respiration: Release of energy from food.
Sensitivity: Responding to changes in the environment.
Growth: Increase in size and mass.
Reproduction: Producing new organisms.
Excretion: Removal of waste substances.
Nutrition: Taking in and using food.
1.3 Cell Theory and Cell Structure
All living organisms are made of cells.
Basic unit of life.
Cell types:
Prokaryotic (e.g., bacteria): No nucleus.
Eukaryotic (e.g., plant and animal cells): Has a nucleus.
1.4 The Diversity of Living Organisms
Bacteria, fungi, plants, animals, and protists.
Differences and similarities between these groups.
1.5 Classification of Living Organisms
Hierarchical system: kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species.
Binomial classification: Genus + species name (e.g., Homo sapiens).
1.6 The Importance of Classification
Helps scientists organize living organisms.
Assists in identification and study of species.
1.7 Microscopes
Magnification and resolution.
Types: Light microscopes, electron microscopes.
Use in observing cells and microorganisms.
1.8 Practical Skills
Handling microscopes.
Preparing slides.
Calculating magnification and size of objects
Chapter 2: Cells and Cell Organisation
2.1 The Cell Cycle and Cell Division
Importance of cell division for growth and repair.
The stages of mitosis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase.
Differences between mitosis and meiosis.
The cell cycle: growth (interphase), mitosis, cytokinesis.
2.2 Differentiation and Specialised Cells
How cells change to perform specific functions.
Example: nerve cells, muscle cells, xylem and phloem in plants.
The importance of differentiation in multicellular organisms.
2.3 Cell Organisation in Plants and Animals
Tissues, organs, and systems.
Plant tissues: meristematic, xylem, phloem, epidermis.
Animal tissues: epithelial, muscle, nerve tissues.
2.4 Microscopy and Cell Structure
Use of microscopes to observe cells.
Differences between light microscopy and electron microscopy.
Cell structure details: nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall, vacuole, chloroplasts.
2.5 Culturing Microorganisms
Growing bacteria and fungi in the lab.
Conditions needed for cultures to grow.
Safety precautions.
2.6 Practical Skills
Preparing slides.
Using microscopes.
Calculating magnification and size of cell structures.
Chapter 3: Transport in Plants
3.1 The Need for Transport Systems
Why plants need transport systems to move water, minerals, and food.
Differences between simple diffusion and active transport.
3.2 The Structure of the Xylem and Phloem
Xylem transports water and minerals from roots to leaves.
Phloem transports food (sugar) from leaves to other parts.
Structure of xylem: thick walls, dead cells.
Structure of phloem: living cells, sieve tubes, companion cells.
3.3 How Water Is Absorbed and Transported
The process of osmosis in root hair cells.
Root pressure.
Capillary action.
Transpiration: the evaporation of water from leaves.
3.4 The Transpiration Stream
The pathway of water movement through the plant.
Factors affecting transpiration: light, humidity, temperature, wind.
3.5 The Role of Transpiration
Cooling the plant.
Supply of minerals.
Maintaining the flow of water and nutrients.
3.6 Factors Affecting Transpiration
How environmental conditions influence water loss.
Adaptations to reduce water loss (e.g., waxy cuticle, stomatal closure).
3.7 Controlling Water Loss
Stomatal regulation.
Methods to measure transpiration (e.g., potometer).
Chapter 4: Nutrition in Animals
4.1 The Need for Food
To provide energy for respiration.
For growth and repair.
To maintain body temperature.
To keep the organism healthy.
4.2 Balanced Diet
Contains the right proportions of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water.
The importance of each component:
Carbohydrates: main energy source.
Proteins: growth and repair.
Fats: concentrated energy store.
Vitamins and minerals: metabolic processes and health.
Water: vital for life processes.
4.3 Modes of Nutrition
Autotrophic (plants make their own food via photosynthesis).
Heterotrophic (animals consume other organisms).
4.4 The Human Digestive System
Structure and function:
Mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus.
Accessory organs: liver, gall bladder, pancreas.
Process of digestion:
Mechanical digestion (chewing, churning).
Chemical digestion (enzymes breaking down food).
4.5 Enzymes in Digestion
Types of enzymes:
Amylase (starch to sugar).
Proteases (proteins to amino acids).
Lipases (fats to fatty acids and glycerol).
Suitable pH and conditions for each enzyme.
4.6 Absorption of Nutrients
Villis in the small intestine for absorption.
Transport of nutrients to the bloodstream.
4.7 The Role of the Liver
Produces bile to emulsify fats.
Detoxifies harmful substances.
Regulates blood sugar levels.
4.8 The Human Digestive System Disorders (optional)
Common disorders like tooth decay, indigestion, diarrhea, constipation.
Chapter 5: The Circulatory System
5.1 The Need for a Circulatory System
To transport oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products.
To connect different parts of the body.
5.2 Structure of the Heart
Location and size.
Four chambers: right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, left ventricle.
Valves to prevent backflow.
5.3 The Blood Vessels
Arteries: carry blood away from the heart, thick muscular walls.
Veins: carry blood to the heart, thinner walls.
Capillaries: tiny vessels for exchange of materials.
5.4 The Blood
Components:
Red blood cells: carry oxygen (contain hemoglobin).
White blood cells: defend against infection.
Plasma: transport nutrients, hormones, waste.
Platelets: involved in clotting.
5.5 Cardiac Cycle
The process of heart contraction and relaxation.
How the heart pumps blood.
5.6 Blood Pressure
Measurement and significance.
Factors affecting blood pressure.
5.7 The Lymphatic System (optional)
Role in immune response and fluid balance.
5.8 Health and Circulatory Disorders
Coronary heart disease.
Atherosclerosis.
Hypertension.
Effects of smoking, diet, and exercise.
Chapter 6: Response to Exercise and the Nervous System
6.1 The Need for Response Systems
To maintain a steady internal environment (homeostasis).
To respond to changes in the environment or activity level.
6.2 The Nervous System
Main parts:
Central nervous system (CNS): brain and spinal cord.
Peripheral nervous system (PNS): nerves extending from CNS.
Types of nerves:
Sensory nerves: carry impulses to CNS.
Motor nerves: carry impulses from CNS to effectors.
Relay nerves: connect sensory and motor nerves.
6.3 The Structure of a Neuron
Dendrites, cell body, axon, myelin sheath, nerve ending.
How impulses travel along neurons.
6.4 The Nervous Pathway
Reflex actions:
Stimulus, receptor, sensory neuron, relay neuron, motor neuron, effector, response.
Examples of reflexes (e.g., knee jerk, blinking).
6.5 The Brain and Spinal Cord
Structure and functions.
The cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla.
The spinal cord and reflex arcs.
6.6 Sensory and Motor Receptors
Detect stimuli like light, sound, pressure, chemicals.
Responsive effectors: muscles and glands.
6.7 The Effect of Exercise on the Body
Increased heart rate and breathing rate.
Role of adrenaline.
Muscle fatigue and recovery.
6.8 The Role of Hormones
How hormones like adrenaline prepare the body for exercise (fight or flight response).
Chapter 7: Energy and Respiration
7.1 The Importance of Energy
To power metabolic processes.
For growth, movement, and maintaining body temperature.
7.2 Photosynthesis (brief overview if covered)
Process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy.
The role of chlorophyll in chloroplasts.
7.3 Respiration – The Energy Release
The process of releasing energy from glucose.
Types:
Aerobic respiration (with oxygen).
Anaerobic respiration (without oxygen).
7.4 Aerobic Respiration
Occurs in the mitochondria.
Produces a large amount of ATP (energy).
7.5 Anaerobic Respiration
Occurs in oxygen-deficient conditions.
In animals: produces lactic acid.
In yeast and bacteria: produces ethanol and carbon dioxide.
7.6 The Use of Energy in Living Organisms
Active transport.
Muscle contraction.
Reproduction and growth.
Maintaining body temperature.
7.7 Effect of Exercise on Respiration
Increased demand for oxygen.
Oxygen debt and recovery.
7.8 Measuring Respiration
Practical methods: respirometers.
Indicators of respiration activity.
Chapter 8: Homeostasis and the Kidney
8.1 The Importance of Homeostasis
Maintaining a stable internal environment.
Examples include regulation of temperature, water, and ions.
8.2 The Role of the Kidneys in Homeostasis
Filtering blood to remove waste products.
Regulating water and mineral ion levels.
Producing urine.
8.3 Structure of the Kidney
Cortex, medulla, pelvis.
Nephrons as the functional units.
8.4 The Nephron and Its Functions
Structures: Bowman's capsule, renal tubule, Loop of Henle, collecting duct.
Processes:
Filtration at Bowman's capsule.
Reabsorption of glucose, ions, and water.
Secretion of waste products.
8.5 The Composition of Urine
Water, urea, salts.
The concentration of urine depends on the body's hydration level.
8.6 The Control of Water Content
The role of the hormone ADH (antidiuretic hormone).
How ADH influences the permeability of the collecting duct.
Effect of alcohol and other substances on ADH.
8.7 Effects of Imbalances
Dehydration (high urine concentration).
Overhydration (dilute urine).
Kidney failure and dialysis.
8.8 Practical Skills
Testing urine for sugar and protein.
Investigating water balance in the body.
Chapter 9: Reproduction in Humans
9.1 The Purpose of Reproduction
Producing offspring to continue the species.
Ensuring survival and adaptation.
9.2 Types of Reproduction
Sexual reproduction: involves male and female gametes.
Asexual reproduction: involves only one parent (not common in humans).
9.3 The Male Reproductive System
Main organs: testes, sperm ducts, prostate gland, penis.
Structure and function of testes.
Production of sperm in seminiferous tubules.
The role of testosterone.
9.4 The Female Reproductive System
Main organs: ovaries, oviducts (fallopian tubes), uterus, vagina.
Oogenesis: formation of ova (egg cells).
Function of the ovaries and the menstrual cycle.
9.5 Fertilization and Pregnancy
Fusion of sperm and egg to form zygote.
The role of the fallopian tube.
Embryonic development.
Implantation in the uterus.
9.6 The Menstrual Cycle
Phases: menstruation, follicular phase, ovulation, luteal phase.
Hormones involved: FSH, LH, estrogen, progesterone.
Regulation by hormones.
9.7 Pregnancy and Childbirth
Development of an embryo and fetus.
Nutritional needs during pregnancy.
Baby delivery process.
9.8 Reproductive Technologies (optional)
Contraception methods.
In-vitro fertilization (IVF).
Ethical considerations.
Chapter 10: Inheritance, Variation, and Evolution
10.1 Types of Reproduction and Genetic Variation
Sexual reproduction leads to genetic variation.
Asexual reproduction produces clones with little variation.
10.2 Genes and Chromosomes
Genes are units of inheritance.
Located on chromosomes within the nucleus.
Human chromosome number: 46 (23 pairs).
10.3 DNA Structure and Gene Function
Double helix structure.
Genes contain instructions for making proteins.
10.4 Alleles and Genotypes
Different forms of a gene: alleles.
Genotype: genetic makeup.
Phenotype: observable characteristics.
10.5 Dominant and Recessive Alleles
Dominant alleles mask the effect of recessive alleles.
Representation (e.g., T for tall, t for short).
10.6 Inheritance and Punnett Squares
Predict possible offspring genotypes.
Examples with monohybrid crosses.
10.7 Human Blood Groups
The ABO blood group system.
Blood group inheritance (genotypes and phenotypes).
10.8 Evolution and Natural Selection
Organisms change over time.
The role of mutations.
Survival of the fittest and adaptation.
10.9 Speciation
Formation of new species.
Isolating mechanisms.
10.10 Evidence for Evolution
Fossil record.
Comparative anatomy and embryology.
Genetic evidence.
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