Course Content
1 Chemical energetics
1.1 Lattice energy and Born-Haber cycles
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 define and use the terms:
(a) enthalpy change of atomisation, ΔHat
(b) lattice energy, ΔHlatt (the change from gas phase ions to solid lattice)
2 (a) define and use the term first electron affinity, EA
(b) explain the factors affecting the electron affinities of elements
(c) describe and explain the trends in the electron affinities of the Group 16 and Group 17 elements
3 construct and use Born–Haber cycles for ionic solids (limited to +1 and +2 cations, –1 and –2 anions)
4 carry out calculations involving Born–Haber cycles
5 explain, in qualitative terms, the effect of ionic charge and of ionic radius on the numerical magnitude of a
lattice energy
1.2 Enthalpies of solution and hydration
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 define and use the term enthalpy change with reference to hydration, ΔHhyd, and solution, ΔHsol
2 construct and use an energy cycle involving enthalpy change of solution, lattice energy and enthalpy
change of hydration
3 carry out calculations involving the energy cycles in 23.2.2
4 explain, in qualitative terms, the effect of ionic charge and of ionic radius on the numerical magnitude of
an enthalpy change of hydration
1.3 Entropy change, ΔS
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 define the term entropy, S, as the number of possible arrangements of the particles and their energy in a
given system
2 predict and explain the sign of the entropy changes that occur:
(a) during a change in state, e.g. melting, boiling and dissolving (and their reverse)
(b) during a temperature change
(c) during a reaction in which there is a change in the number of gaseous molecules
3 calculate the entropy change for a reaction, ΔS, given the standard entropies, S⦵, of the reactants and
products, ΔS⦵ = ΣS⦵ (products) – ΣS⦵ (reactants)
(use of ΔS⦵ = ΔSsurr + ΔSsys is not required)
1.4 Gibbs free energy change, ΔG
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 state and use the Gibbs equation ΔG⦵ = ΔH⦵ – TΔS⦵
2 perform calculations using the equation ΔG⦵ = ΔH⦵ – TΔS⦵
3 state whether a reaction or process will be feasible by using the sign of ΔG
4 predict the effect of temperature change on the feasibility of a reaction, given standard enthalpy and
entropy changes
2 Electrochemistr
2.1 Electrolysis
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 predict the identities of substances liberated during electrolysis from the state of electrolyte (molten or
aqueous), position in the redox series (electrode potential) and concentration
2 state and apply the relationship F = Le between the Faraday constant, F, the Avogadro constant, L, and
the charge on the electron, e
3 calculate:
(a) the quantity of charge passed during electrolysis, using Q = It
(b) the mass and/or volume of substance liberated during electrolysis
4 describe the determination of a value of the Avogadro constant by an electrolytic method
2.2 Standard electrode potentials E⦵, standard cell potentials E⦵ cell and the Nernst equation
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 define the terms:
(a) standard electrode (reduction) potential
(b) standard cell potential
2 describe the standard hydrogen electrode
3 describe methods used to measure the standard electrode potentials of:
(a) metals or non-metals in contact with their ions in aqueous solution
(b) ions of the same element in different oxidation states
4 calculate a standard cell potential by combining two standard electrode potentials
5 use standard cell potentials to:
(a) deduce the polarity of each electrode and hence explain/deduce the direction of electron flow in the
external circuit of a simple cell
(b) predict the feasibility of a reaction
6 deduce from E⦵ values the relative reactivity of elements, compounds and ions as oxidising agents or as
reducing agents
7 construct redox equations using the relevant half-equations
8 predict qualitatively how the value of an electrode potential, E, varies with the concentrations of the
aqueous ions
9 use the Nernst equation, e.g. E = E⦵ + (0.059/z) log [oxidised species][reduced species] ,
to predict quantitatively how the value of an electrode potential varies with the concentrations of the
aqueous ions; examples include Cu2+(aq) + 2e–⇌ Cu(s), Fe3+(aq) + e– ⇌ Fe2+(aq)
10 understand and use the equation ΔG⦵ = –nE ⦵ cell F
3 Equilibria
3.1 Acids and bases
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 understand and use the terms conjugate acid and conjugate base
2 define conjugate acid–base pairs, identifying such pairs in reactions
3 define mathematically the terms pH, Ka, pKa and Kw and use them in calculations (Kb and the equation
Kw = Ka × Kb will not be tested)
4 calculate [H+(aq)] and pH values for:
(a) strong acids
(b) strong alkalis
(c) weak acids
5 (a) define a buffer solution
(b) explain how a buffer solution can be made
(c) explain how buffer solutions control pH; use chemical equations in these explanations
(d) describe and explain the uses of buffer solutions, including the role of HCO3– in controlling
pH in blood
6 calculate the pH of buffer solutions, given appropriate data
7 understand and use the term solubility product, Ksp
8 write an expression for Ksp
9 calculate Ksp from concentrations and vice versa
10 (a) understand and use the common ion effect to explain the different solubility of a compound in a
solution containing a common ion
(b) perform calculations using Ksp values and concentration of a common ion
3.2 Partition coefficients
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 state what is meant by the term partition coefficient, Kpc
2 calculate and use a partition coefficient for a system in which the solute is in the same physical state in
the two solvents
3 understand the factors affecting the numerical value of a partition coefficient in terms of the polarities of
the solute and the solvents used
4 Reaction kinetics
4.1 Simple rate equations, orders of reaction and rate constants
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 explain and use the terms rate equation, order of reaction, overall order of reaction, rate constant,
half-life, rate-determining step and intermediate
2 (a) understand and use rate equations of the form rate = k [A]m[B]n (for which m and n are 0, 1 or 2)
(b) deduce the order of a reaction from concentration–time graphs or from experimental data relating to
the initial rates method and half-life method
(c) interpret experimental data in graphical form, including concentration–time and rate–concentration
graphs
(d) calculate an initial rate using concentration data
(e) construct a rate equation
3 (a) show understanding that the half-life of a first-order reaction is independent of concentration
(b) use the half-life of a first-order reaction in calculations
4 calculate the numerical value of a rate constant, for example by:
(a) using the initial rates and the rate equation
(b) using the half-life, t½ , and the equation k = 0.693 / t½
5 for a multi-step reaction:
(a) suggest a reaction mechanism that is consistent with the rate equation and the equation for the
overall reaction
(b) predict the order that would result from a given reaction mechanism and rate-determining step
(c) deduce a rate equation using a given reaction mechanism and rate-determining step for a given
reaction
(d) identify an intermediate or catalyst from a given reaction mechanism
(e) identify the rate determining step from a rate equation and a given reaction mechanism
6 describe qualitatively the effect of temperature change on the rate constant and hence the rate of a
reaction
4.2 Homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 explain that catalysts can be homogeneous or heterogeneous
2 describe the mode of action of a heterogeneous catalyst to include adsorption of reactants, bond
weakening and desorption of products, for example:
(a) iron in the Haber process
(b) palladium, platinum and rhodium in the catalytic removal of oxides of nitrogen from the exhaust
gases of car engines
3 describe the mode of action of a homogeneous catalyst by being used in one step and reformed in a
later step, for example:
(a) atmospheric oxides of nitrogen in the oxidation of atmospheric sulfur dioxide
(b) Fe2+ or Fe3+ in the I–/S2O8 2– reaction
5 Group 2
5.1 Similarities and trends in the properties of the Group 2 metals, magnesium to barium, and
their compounds
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 describe and explain qualitatively the trend in the thermal stability of the nitrates and carbonates
including the effect of ionic radius on the polarisation of the large anion
2 describe and explain qualitatively the variation in solubility and of enthalpy change of solution, ΔH⦵
sol, of the hydroxides and sulfates in terms of relative magnitudes of the enthalpy change of hydration and the
lattice energy
6 Chemistry of transition elements
6.1 General physical and chemical properties of the first row of transition elements, titanium to
copper
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 define a transition element as a d-block element which forms one or more stable ions with incomplete d orbitals
2 sketch the shape of a 3dxy orbital and 3dz² orbital
3 understand that transition elements have the following properties:
(a) they have variable oxidation states
(b) they behave as catalysts
(c) they form complex ions
(d) they form coloured compounds
4 explain why transition elements have variable oxidation states in terms of the similarity in energy of the 3d
and the 4s sub-shells
5 explain why transition elements behave as catalysts in terms of having more than one stable oxidation
state, and vacant d orbitals that are energetically accessible and can form dative bonds with ligands
6 explain why transition elements form complex ions in terms of vacant d orbitals that are energetically
accessible
6.2 General characteristic chemical properties of the first set of transition elements, titanium to
copper
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 describe and explain the reactions of transition elements with ligands to form complexes, including the
complexes of copper(II) and cobalt(II) ions with water and ammonia molecules and hydroxide and
chloride ions
2 define the term ligand as a species that contains a lone pair of electrons that forms a dative covalent
bond to a central metal atom / ion
3 understand and use the terms:
(a) monodentate ligand including as examples H2O, NH3, Cl – and CN–
(b) bidentate ligand including as examples 1,2-diaminoethane, en, H2NCH2 CH2 NH2 and the
ethanedioate ion, C2 O4 2–
(c) polydentate ligand including as an example EDTA4
4 define the term complex as a molecule or ion formed by a central metal atom / ion surrounded by one or
more ligands
5 describe the geometry (shape and bond angles) of transition element complexes which are linear, square
planar, tetrahedral or octahedral
6 (a) state what is meant by coordination number
(b) predict the formula and charge of a complex ion, given the metal ion, its charge or oxidation state,
the ligand and its coordination number or geometry
7 explain qualitatively that ligand exchange can occur, including the complexes of copper(II) ions and
cobalt(II) ions with water and ammonia molecules and hydroxide and chloride ions
8 predict, using E⦵ values, the feasibility of redox reactions involving transition elements and their ions
9 describe the reactions of, and perform calculations involving:
(a) MnO4– / C2 O4 2– in acid solution given suitable data
(b) MnO4– / Fe2+ in acid solution given suitable data
(c) Cu2+ / I– given suitable data
10 perform calculations involving other redox systems given suitable data
6.3 Colour of complexes
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 define and use the terms degenerate and non-degenerate d orbitals
2 describe the splitting of degenerate d orbitals into two non-degenerate sets of d orbitals of higher
energy, and use of Δ E in:
(a) octahedral complexes, two higher and three lower d orbitals
(b) tetrahedral complexes, three higher and two lower d orbitals
3 explain why transition elements form coloured compounds in terms of the frequency of light absorbed as
an electron is promoted between two non-degenerate d orbitals
4 describe, in qualitative terms, the effects of different ligands on Δ E, frequency of light absorbed, and
hence the complementary colour that is observed
5 use the complexes of copper(II) ions and cobalt(II) ions with water and ammonia molecules and
hydroxide and chloride ions as examples of ligand exchange affecting the colour observed
6.4 Stereoisomerism in transition element complexes
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 describe the types of stereoisomerism shown by complexes, including those associated with bidentate
ligands:
(a) geometrical (cis/trans) isomerism, e.g. square planar such as [Pt(NH₃)₂Cl ₂] and octahedral such as
[Co(NH3)4 (H2O)2 ]2+ and [Ni(H2 NCH2 CH2 NH2)2 (H2O)2]2+
(b) optical isomerism, e.g. [Ni(H2 NCH2 CH2 NH2 )3 ]2+ and [Ni(H2 NCH2 CH2 NH2 )2 (H2 O)2 ]2+
2 deduce the overall polarity of complexes such as those described in 28.4.1(a) and 28.4.1(b)
6.5 Stability constants, Kstab
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 define the stability constant, Kstab , of a complex as the equilibrium constant for the formation of the
complex ion in a solvent (from its constituent ions or molecules)
2 write an expression for a Kstab of a complex ([H₂O] should not be included)
3 use Kstab expressions to perform calculations
4 describe and explain ligand exchanges in terms of Kstab values and understand that a large Kstab
is due to the formation of a stable complex ion
7 An introduction to A Level organic chemistry
7.1 Formulas, functional groups and the naming of organic compounds
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 understand that the compounds in the table on page 47 contain a functional group which dictates their
physical and chemical properties
2 interpret and use the general, structural, displayed and skeletal formulas of the classes of compound
stated in the table on page 47
3 understand and use systematic nomenclature of simple aliphatic organic molecules (including cyclic
compounds containing a single ring of up to six carbon atoms) with functional groups detailed in the
table on page 47, up to six carbon atoms (six plus six for esters and amides, straight chains only for
esters and nitriles)
4 understand and use systematic nomenclature of simple aromatic molecules with one benzene ring and
one or more simple substituents, for example 3-nitrobenzoic acid or 2,4,6-tribromophenol
7.2 Characteristic organic reactions
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 understand and use the following terminology associated with types of organic mechanisms:
(a) electrophilic substitution
(b) addition–elimination
7.3 Shapes of aromatic organic molecules; σ and π bonds
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 describe and explain the shape of benzene and other aromatic molecules, including sp² hybridisation, in
terms of σ bonds and a delocalised π system
7.4 Isomerism: optical
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 understand that enantiomers have identical physical and chemical properties apart from their ability to
rotate plane polarised light and their potential biological activity
2 understand and use the terms optically active and racemic mixture
3 describe the effect on plane polarised light of the two optical isomers of a single substance
4 explain the relevance of chirality to the synthetic preparation of drug molecules including:
(a) the potential different biological activity of the two enantiomers
(b) the need to separate a racemic mixture into two pure enantiomers
(c) the use of chiral catalysts to produce a single pure optical isomer
(Candidates should appreciate that compounds can contain more than one chiral centre, but knowledge
of meso compounds and nomenclature such as diastereoisomers is not required.)
8 Hydrocarbons
8.1 Arenes
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 describe the chemistry of arenes as exemplified by the following reactions of benzene and
methylbenzene:
(a) substitution reactions with Cl ₂ and with Br₂ in the presence of a catalyst, Al Cl ₃ or Al Br₃, to form
halogenoarenes (aryl halides)
(b) nitration with a mixture of concentrated HNO₃ and concentrated H₂SO₄ at a temperature between
25 °C and 60 °C
(c) Friedel–Crafts alkylation by CH₃Cl and Al Cl ₃ and heat
(d) Friedel–Crafts acylation by CH₃COCl and Al Cl ₃ and heat
(e) complete oxidation of the side-chain using hot alkaline KMnO₄ and then dilute acid to give a benzoic
acid
(f) hydrogenation of the benzene ring using H₂ and Pt/Ni catalyst and heat to form a cyclohexane ring
2 describe the mechanism of electrophilic substitution in arenes:
(a) as exemplified by the formation of nitrobenzene and bromobenzene
(b) with regards to the effect of delocalisation (aromatic stabilisation) of electrons in arenes to explain the
predomination of substitution over addition
3 predict whether halogenation will occur in the side-chain or in the aromatic ring in arenes depending on
reaction conditions
4 describe that in the electrophilic substitution of arenes, different substituents direct to different ring
positions (limited to the directing effects of –NH₂, –OH, –R, –NO₂, –COOH and –COR)
9 Halogen compounds
9.1 Halogen compounds
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 recall the reactions by which halogenoarenes can be produced: substitution of an arene with Cl₂ or Br₂
in the presence of a catalyst, Al Cl₃ or Al Br₃ to form a halogenoarene, exemplified by benzene to form
chlorobenzene and methylbenzene to form 2-chloromethylbenzene and 4-chloromethylbenzene
2 explain the difference in reactivity between a halogenoalkane and a halogenoarene as exemplified by
chloroethane and chlorobenzene
10 Hydroxy compounds
10.1 Alcohols
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 describe the reaction with acyl chlorides to form esters using ethyl ethanoate
10.2 Phenol
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 recall the reactions (reagents and conditions) by which phenol can be produced:
(a) reaction of phenylamine with HNO₂ or NaNO₂ and dilute acid below 10 °C to produce the diazonium
salt; further warming of the diazonium salt with H₂O to give phenol
2 recall the chemistry of phenol, as exemplified by the following reactions:
(a) with bases, for example NaOH(aq) to produce sodium phenoxide
(b) with Na(s) to produce sodium phenoxide and H2(g)
(c) in NaOH(aq) with diazonium salts, to give azo compounds
(d) nitration of the aromatic ring with dilute HNO₃(aq) at room temperature to give a mixture of 2-nitrophenol
and 4-nitrophenol
(e) bromination of the aromatic ring with Br₂(aq) to form 2,4,6-tribromophenol
3 explain the acidity of phenol
4 describe and explain the relative acidities of water, phenol and ethanol
5 explain why the reagents and conditions for the nitration and bromination of phenol are different from
those for benzene
6 recall that the hydroxyl group of a phenol directs to the 2-, 4- and 6-positions
7 apply knowledge of the reactions of phenol to those of other phenolic compounds, e.g. naphthol
11 Carboxylic acids and derivatives
11.1 Carboxylic acids
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 recall the reaction by which benzoic acid can be produced:
(a) reaction of an alkylbenzene with hot alkaline KMnO₄ and then dilute acid, exemplified by
methylbenzene
2 describe the reaction of carboxylic acids with PCl ₃ and heat, PCl ₅ or SOCl ₂ to form acyl chlorides
3 recognise that some carboxylic acids can be further oxidised:
(a) the oxidation of methanoic acid, HCOOH, with Fehling’s reagent or Tollens’ reagent or
acidified KMnO₄ or acidified K₂Cr₂O₇ to carbon dioxide and water
(b) the oxidation of ethanedioic acid, HOOCCOOH, with warm acidified KMnO₄ to carbon dioxide
4 describe and explain the relative acidities of carboxylic acids, phenols and alcohols
5 describe and explain the relative acidities of chlorine-substituted carboxylic acids
11.2 Esters
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 recall the reaction by which esters can be produced:
(a) reaction of alcohols with acyl chlorides using the formation of ethyl ethanoate and phenyl benzoate
as examples
11.3 Acyl chlorides
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 recall the reactions (reagents and conditions) by which acyl chlorides can be produced:
(a) reaction of carboxylic acids with PCl ₃ and heat, PCl ₅ or SOCl ₂
2 describe the following reactions of acyl chlorides:
(a) hydrolysis on addition of water at room temperature to give the carboxylic acid and HCl
(b) reaction with an alcohol at room temperature to produce an ester and HCl
(c) reaction with phenol at room temperature to produce an ester and HCl
(d) reaction with ammonia at room temperature to produce an amide and HCl
(e) reaction with a primary or secondary amine at room temperature to produce an amide and HCl
3 describe the addition–elimination mechanism of acyl chlorides in reactions in 33.3.2(a)–(e)
4 explain the relative ease of hydrolysis of acyl chlorides, alkyl chlorides and halogenoarenes (aryl
chlorides)
12 Nitrogen compounds
12.1 Primary and secondary amines
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 recall the reactions (reagents and conditions) by which primary and secondary amines are produced:
(a) reaction of halogenoalkanes with NH₃ in ethanol heated under pressure
(b) reaction of halogenoalkanes with primary amines in ethanol, heated in a sealed tube / under pressure
(c) the reduction of amides with LiAl H₄
(d) the reduction of nitriles with LiAl H₄ or H₂ / Ni
2 describe the condensation reaction of ammonia or an amine with an acyl chloride at room temperature
to give an amide
3 describe and explain the basicity of aqueous solutions of amines
12.2 Phenylamine and azo compounds
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 describe the preparation of phenylamine via the nitration of benzene to form nitrobenzene followed by
reduction with hot Sn/concentrated HCl followed by NaOH(aq)
2 describe:
(a) the reaction of phenylamine with Br₂(aq) at room temperature
(b) the reaction of phenylamine with HNO₂ or NaNO₂ and dilute acid below 10 °C to produce the
diazonium salt; further warming of the diazonium salt with H₂O to give phenol
3 describe and explain the relative basicities of aqueous ammonia, ethylamine and phenylamine
4 recall the following about azo compounds:
(a) describe the coupling of benzenediazonium chloride with phenol in NaOH(aq) to form an azo
compound
(b) identify the azo group
(c) state that azo compounds are often used as dyes
(d) that other azo dyes can be formed via a similar route
12.3 Amides
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 recall the reactions (reagents and conditions) by which amides are produced:
(a) the reaction between ammonia and an acyl chloride at room temperature
(b) the reaction between a primary amine and an acyl chloride at room temperature
2 describe the reactions of amides:
(a) hydrolysis with aqueous alkali or aqueous acid
(b) the reduction of the CO group in amides with LiAl H₄ to form an amine
3 state and explain why amides are much weaker bases than amines
12.4 Amino acids
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 describe the acid / base properties of amino acids and the formation of zwitterions, to include the
isoelectric point
2 describe the formation of amide (peptide) bonds between amino acids to give di- and tripeptides
3 interpret and predict the results of electrophoresis on mixtures of amino acids and dipeptides at varying
pHs (the assembling of the apparatus will not be tested)
13 Polymerisation
13.1 Condensation polymerisation
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 describe the formation of polyesters:
(a) the reaction between a diol and a dicarboxylic acid or dioyl chloride
(b) the reaction of a hydroxycarboxylic acid
2 describe the formation of polyamides:
(a) the reaction between a diamine and a dicarboxylic acid or dioyl chloride
(b) the reaction of an aminocarboxylic acid
(c) the reaction between amino acids
3 deduce the repeat unit of a condensation polymer obtained from a given monomer or pair of monomers
4 identify the monomer(s) present in a given section of a condensation polymer molecule
13.2 Predicting the type of polymerisation
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 predict the type of polymerisation reaction for a given monomer or pair of monomers
2 deduce the type of polymerisation reaction which produces a given section of a polymer molecule
13.3 Degradable polymers
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 recognise that poly(alkenes) are chemically inert and can therefore be difficult to biodegrade
2 recognise that some polymers can be degraded by the action of light
3 recognise that polyesters and polyamides are biodegradable by acidic and alkaline hydrolysis
14 Organic synthesis
14.1 Organic synthesis
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 for an organic molecule containing several functional groups:
(a) identify organic functional groups using the reactions in the syllabus
(b) predict properties and reactions
2 devise multi-step synthetic routes for preparing organic molecules using the reactions in the syllabus
3 analyse a given synthetic route in terms of type of reaction and reagents used for each step of it, and
possible by-products
15 Analytical techniques
15.1 Thin-layer chromatography
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 describe and understand the terms
(a) stationary phase, for example aluminium oxide (on a solid support)
(b) mobile phase; a polar or non-polar solvent
(c) Rf value
(d) solvent front and baseline
2 interpret Rf values
3 explain the differences in Rf values in terms of interaction with the stationary phase and of relative
solubility in the mobile phase
15.2 Gas / liquid chromatography
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 describe and understand the terms
(a) stationary phase; a high boiling point non-polar liquid (on a solid support)
(b) mobile phase; an unreactive gas
(c) retention time
2 interpret gas / liquid chromatograms in terms of the percentage composition of a mixture
3 explain retention times in terms of interaction with the stationary phase
15.3 Carbon-13 NMR spectroscopy
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 analyse and interpret a carbon-13 NMR spectrum of a simple molecule to deduce:
(a) the different environments of the carbon atoms present
(b) the possible structures for the molecule
2 predict or explain the number of peaks in a carbon-13 NMR spectrum for a given molecule
15.4 Proton (1H) NMR spectroscopy
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 analyse and interpret a proton (1H) NMR spectrum of a simple molecule to deduce:
(a) the different environments of proton present using chemical shift values
(b) the relative numbers of each type of proton present from relative peak areas
(c) the number of equivalent protons on the carbon atom adjacent to the one to which the given proton
is attached from the splitting pattern, using the n + 1 rule (limited to singlet, doublet, triplet, quartet
and multiplet)
(d) the possible structures for the molecule
2 predict the chemical shifts and splitting patterns of the protons in a given molecule
3 describe the use of tetramethylsilane, TMS, as the standard for chemical shift measurements
4 state the need for deuterated solvents, e.g. CDCl ₃, when obtaining a proton NMR spectrum
5 describe the identification of O–H and N–H protons by proton exchange using D₂O
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