Course Content
1. Cell structure and organisation
Content
1.1 Plant and animal cells
1.2 Specialised cells, tissues and organs
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) examine under the microscope an animal cell (e.g. from fresh liver) and a plant cell (e.g. from Elodea,
a moss, onion epidermis, or any suitable, locally available material), using an appropriate temporary
staining technique, such as iodine or methylene blue
(b) draw diagrams to represent observations of the plant and animal cells examined above
(c) identify, from fresh preparations or on diagrams or photomicrographs, the cell membrane, nucleus and
cytoplasm in an animal cell
(d) identify, from diagrams or photomicrographs, the cellulose cell wall, cell membrane, sap vacuole,
cytoplasm, nucleus and chloroplasts in a plant cell
(e) compare the visible differences in structure of the animal and the plant cells examined
(f) state the function of the cell membrane in controlling the passage of substances into and out of the cell
(g) state the function of the cell wall in maintaining turgor (turgidity) within the cell
(h) state, in simple terms, the relationship between cell function and cell structure for the following:
• absorption – root hair cells
• conduction and support – xylem vessels
• transport of oxygen – red blood cells
(j) identify these cells from preserved material under the microscope, from diagrams and from photomicrographs
(i) differentiate cell, tissue, organ and organ system as illustrated by examples covered in sections 1 to 12,
15 and 16.
2. Diffusion and osmosis
Content
2.1 Diffusion
2.2 Osmosis
2.3 Active transport
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) define diffusion as the movement of molecules from a region of their higher concentration to a region of
their lower concentration, down a concentration gradient
(b) define osmosis as the passage of water molecules from a region of higher water potential to a region of
lower water potential, through a partially permeable membrane
(c) describe the importance of a water potential gradient in the uptake of water by plants and the effects of
osmosis on plant and animal tissues
(d) define active transport as the movement of ions into or out of a cell through the cell membrane, from
a region of their lower concentration to a region of their higher concentration against a concentration
gradient, using energy released during respiration
(e) discuss the importance of active transport as an energy-consuming process by which substances are
transported against a concentration gradient, as in ion uptake by root hairs and glucose uptake by cells in
the villi.
3. Enzymes
Content
3.1 Enzyme action
3.2 Effects of temperature and pH
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) define catalyst as a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction and is not changed by the reaction
(b) define enzymes as proteins that function as biological catalysts
(c) explain enzyme action in terms of the ‘lock and key’ hypothesis
(d) investigate and describe the effects of temperature and of pH on enzyme activity
4. Plant nutrition
Content
4.1 Photosynthesis
4.2 Leaf structure
4.3 Mineral nutrition
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) understand that photosynthesis is the fundamental process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates
from raw materials
(b) investigate the necessity for chlorophyll, light and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, using appropriate controls
(c) state the equation (in words or symbols) for photosynthesis
(d) investigate and state the effect of varying light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature
on the rate of photosynthesis (e.g. in submerged aquatic plants)
(e) understand the concept of limiting factors in photosynthesis
(f) describe the intake of carbon dioxide and water by plants
(g) understand that chlorophyll traps light energy and converts it into chemical energy for the formation of
carbohydrates and their subsequent storage
(h) explain why most forms of life are completely dependent on photosynthesis
(i) identify and label the cuticle, cellular and tissue structure of a dicotyledonous leaf, as seen in cross
section under the microscope, and describe the significance of these features in terms of function, i.e.
• distribution of chloroplasts – photosynthesis
• stomata and mesophyll cells – gas exchange
• vascular bundles – transport
(j) understand the effect of a lack of nitrate and magnesium ions on plant growth
5. Animal nutrition
Content
5.1 Nutrients
5.2 Diet
5.3 World food supplies
5.4 Human alimentary canal
5.5 Chemical digestion
5.6 Absorption and assimilation
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) list the chemical elements that make up:
• carbohydrates
• fats
• proteins
(b) describe tests for:
• starch (iodine in potassium iodide solution)
• reducing sugars (Benedict’s solution)
• protein (biuret test)
• fats (ethanol emulsion test)
(c) list the principal sources of, and describe the dietary importance of carbohydrates, fats, proteins,
vitamins (C and D only), mineral salts (calcium and iron only), fibre (roughage) and water
(d) name the diseases and describe the symptoms resulting from deficiencies of vitamin C (scurvy),
vitamin D (rickets), calcium (rickets) and iron (anaemia)
(e) understand the concept of a balanced diet
(f) explain why diet, especially energy intake, should be related to age, sex and activity of an individual
(g) state the effects of malnutrition in relation to starvation, heart disease, constipation and obesity
(h) discuss the problems that contribute to famine (unequal distribution of food, drought and flooding,
increasing population)
(i) identify the main regions of the alimentary canal and the associated organs: mouth (buccal) cavity, salivary
glands, oesophagus, stomach, duodenum, pancreas, gall bladder, liver, ileum, colon, rectum and anus
(j) describe the main functions of these parts in relation to ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and
egestion of food, as appropriate
(k) identify the different types of human teeth and describe their structure and functions
(l) state the causes of dental decay and describe the proper care of teeth
(m) describe peristalsis
(n) explain why most foods must be digested
(o) describe:
• digestion in the alimentary canal
• the functions of a typical amylase, protease and lipase, listing the substrates and end-products
(p) describe the structure of a villus, including the roles of capillaries and lacteals
(q) describe the significance of villi in increasing the internal surface area
(r) state the function of the hepatic portal vein as the route taken by most of the food absorbed from the
small intestine
(s) state:
• that large molecules are synthesised from smaller basic units: glycogen from glucose
proteins from amino acids lipids (fats and oils) from glycerol and fatty acids
• the role of the liver in the metabolism of glucose and amino acids
• the role of fat as a storage substance
• that the formation of urea and the breakdown of alcohol occur in the liver
6. Transport in flowering plants
Content
6.1 Water and ion uptake
6.2 Transpiration and translocation
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) relate the structure and functions of root hairs to their surface area and to water and ion uptake
(b) state that transpiration is the evaporation of water at the surfaces of the mesophyll cells followed by the
loss of water vapour from the leaves through the stomata
(c) describe:
• how water vapour loss is related to cell surfaces, air spaces and stomata
• the effects of air currents (wind), and the variation of temperature, humidity and light intensity on transpiration rate
• how wilting occurs
(d) investigate, using a suitable stain, the pathway of water in a cut stem
(e) explain the movement of water through the stem in terms of transpiration pull
(f) identify the positions of xylem and phloem tissues as seen in transverse sections of unthickened, herbaceous, dicotyledonous roots, stems and leaves
(g) state the functions of xylem and phloem.
7. Transport in humans
Content
7.1 Circulatory system
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) describe the circulatory system as a system of tubes with a pump and valves to ensure one-way flow of
blood
(b) describe the double circulation in terms of a low pressure circulation to the lungs and a high pressure
circulation to the body tissues and relate these differences to the different functions of the two circuits
(c) name the main blood vessels that carry blood to and from the heart, lungs, liver and kidneys
(d) describe the structure and function of the heart in terms of muscular contraction and the working of valves
(e) compare the structure and function of arteries, veins and capillaries
(f) investigate and state the effect of physical activity on pulse rate
(g) describe coronary heart disease in terms of the occlusion of coronary arteries and state the possible
causes (diet, stress and smoking) and preventive measures
(h) identify red and white blood cells as seen under the light microscope on prepared slides, and in diagrams and photomicrographs
(i) list the components of blood as red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma
(j) state the functions of blood:
• red blood cells – haemoglobin and oxygen transport
• white blood cells – phagocytosis, antibody formation and tissue rejection
• platelets – fibrinogen to fibrin, causing clotting
• plasma – transport of blood cells, ions, soluble food substances, hormones, carbon dioxide, urea, vitamins and plasma proteins
(k) describe the transfer of materials between capillaries and tissue fluid.
8. Respiration
Content
8.1 Aerobic respiration
8.2 Anaerobic respiration
8.3 Human gas exchange
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) define respiration as the release of energy from food substances in all living cells
(b) define aerobic respiration as the release of a relatively large amount of energy by the breakdown of food
substances in the presence of oxygen
(c) state the equation (in words or symbols) for aerobic respiration
(d) state the uses of energy in the human body: muscle contraction, protein synthesis, cell division, active
transport, growth, the passage of nerve impulses and the maintenance of a constant body temperature
(e) define anaerobic respiration as the release of a relatively small amount of energy by the breakdown of
food substances in the absence of oxygen
(f) state the equation (in words or symbols) for anaerobic respiration in humans and in yeast
(g) describe the effect of lactic acid production in muscles during exercise
(h) know the percentages of the gases in atmospheric air and investigate and state the differences between
inspired and expired air
(i) investigate and state the effect of physical activity on rate and depth of breathing
(j) identify on diagrams and name the larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and associated capillaries
(k) state the characteristics of, and describe the role of, the exchange surface of the alveoli in gas exchange
(l) describe the role of cilia, diaphragm, ribs and intercostal muscles (external and internal) in breathing
9. Excretion
Content
9.1 Structure and function of kidneys
9.2 Kidney dialysis
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) define excretion as the removal of toxic materials and the waste products of metabolism from organisms
(b) describe the removal of carbon dioxide from the lungs
(c) identify on diagrams and name the kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra and state the function of each (the
function of the kidney should be described simply as removing urea and excess salts and water from the
blood; details of kidney structure and nephron are not required)
(d) describe dialysis in kidney machines as the diffusion of waste products and salts (small molecules)
through a membrane; large molecules (e.g. protein) remain in the blood.
10. Homeostasis
Content
10.1 Structure and function of the skin
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) define homeostasis as the maintenance of a constant internal environment
(b) explain the concept of control by negative feedback
(c) identify, on a diagram of the skin, hairs, sweat glands, temperature receptors, blood vessels and fatty tissue
(d) describe the maintenance of a constant body temperature in humans in terms of insulation and the role
of temperature receptors in the skin, sweating, shivering, blood vessels near the skin surface and the
coordinating role of the brain.
11. Coordination and response
Content
11.1 Nervous system
11.2 Receptors
11.3 Reflex action
11.4 Hormones
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) state that the nervous system (brain, spinal cord and nerves) serves to coordinate and regulate bodily
functions
(b) identify, on diagrams of the central nervous system, the cerebrum, cerebellum, pituitary gland and
hypothalamus, medulla, spinal cord and nerves
(c) describe the principal functions of the above structures in terms of coordinating and regulating bodily
functions
(d) describe the gross structure of the eye as seen in front view and in horizontal section
(e) state the principal functions of component parts of the eye in producing a focused image of near and
distant objects on the retina
(f) describe the pupil reflex in response to bright and dim light
(g) outline the functions of sensory neurones, relay neurones and motor neurones
(h) discuss the function of the brain and spinal cord in producing a coordinated response as a result of a
specific stimulus (reflex action)
(i) define a hormone as a chemical substance, produced by a gland, carried by the blood, which alters the
activity of one or more specific target organs and is then destroyed by the liver
(j) state the role of the hormone adrenaline in boosting the blood glucose concentration and give examples
of situations in which this may occur
(k) state the role of the hormone insulin in controlling blood glucose concentration
(l) describe the signs (increased blood glucose concentration and glucose in urine) and treatment
(administration of insulin) of diabetes mellitus.
12. Support, movement and locomotion
Content
12.1 Bones
12.2 Joints
12.3 Antagonistic muscles
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) identify and describe, from diagrams, photographs and real specimens, the main bones of the forelimb
(humerus, radius, ulna and scapula) of a mammal
(b) describe the type of movement permitted by the ball and socket joint and the hinge joint of the forelimb
(c) describe the action of the antagonistic muscles at the hinge joint.
13. The use and abuse of drugs
Content
13.1 Antibiotics
13.2 Effects of heroin
13.3 Effects of alcohol
13.4 Effects of tobacco smoke
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) define a drug as any externally administered substance that modifies or affects chemical reactions in the body
(b) describe the medicinal use of antibiotics for the treatment of bacterial infection
(c) describe the effects of the abuse of heroin: a powerful depressant, problems of addiction, severe
withdrawal symptoms and associated problems such as crime and infection, e.g. AIDS
(d) describe the effects of excessive consumption of alcohol: reduced self-control, depressant, effect on
reaction times, damage to liver and social implications
(e) describe the effects of tobacco smoke and its major toxic components (nicotine, tar and carbon
monoxide) on health: strong association with bronchitis, emphysema, lung cancer and heart disease, and
the association between smoking during pregnancy and reduced birth weight of the baby
(f) recognise the fact that many people regard smoking as no longer socially acceptable.
14. Microorganisms and biotechnology
Content
14.1 Microorganisms
14.2 Food biotechnology
14.3 Industrial biotechnology
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) list the main characteristics of the following groups: viruses, bacteria and fungi
(b) outline the role of microorganisms in decomposition
(c) explain the role of yeast in the production of bread and alcohol
(d) outline the role of bacteria in yoghurt and cheese production
(e) describe the use of fermenters for large-scale production of antibiotics and single cell protein
(f) describe the role of the fungus Penicillium in the production of penicillin
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